Dynamic Response Analysis of Commuter Aircraft Windshield Under Drone Impact Using Finite Element Method
Abstract
This study investigates the dynamic response of a commuter aircraft windshield subjected to drone impact and compares its damage characteristics with bird-strike conditions. Numerical simulations were conducted using the finite element method (FEM), incorporating variations in impact location, angle, and velocity. The results show that both impact location and angle significantly affect damage severity. For location and angle variations, the drone penetrated the windshield, with the most severe damage occurring at the center location and a 0° impact angle, resulting in maximum energy absorption of 1573.98 J. The plastic strain area at the center and at 0° was wider than at the upper edge and 22.5°, respectively. For velocity variations, the highest absorbed energy of 1975.04 J occurred at 105.5 m/s. At 58 m/s, cracking occurred without penetration, while penetration occurred at 80 m/s and above. Despite its lower mass compared to a 910 g bird, the drone impact proved more hazardous due to windshield penetration.
##Keywords:##
Bird Strike, Drone, Finite Element Method, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV).
Published
Mar 30, 2026
How to Cite
ERLANGGA, Noval; RAMADHAN, Raihan Farhan.
Dynamic Response Analysis of Commuter Aircraft Windshield Under Drone Impact Using Finite Element Method.
Journal of Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace -science and engineering-, [S.l.], v. 70, n. 1, p. 1-12, mar. 2026.
ISSN 2527-6085.
Available at: <https://isomase.org/Journals/index.php/jomase/article/view/571>. Date accessed: 25 may 2026.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.36842/jomase.v70i1.571.
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[3] Uzunta?, K.N. & Aslan, M. (2025). Unmanned aerial vehicles and aviation safety: a qualitative study. The Aeronautical Journal, 129(1340), 2919–2937. doi:10.1017/aer.2025.10038.
[4] Grand View Research (2025). Drone Market (2025-2030). https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/drone-market-report.
[5] Directorate General of Civil Aviation. (2020). Civil Aviation Safety Regulation (CASR) Part 107: Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems. Ministry of Transportation, Republic of Indonesia.
[6] European Aviation Safety Agency. (2016). UAS Safety Risk Portfolio and Analysis (Safety Intelligence and Performance SM1.1). Cologne, Germany: EASA.
[7] Charpentreau, C. (2023). Air Force One possibly involved in near-miss incident with drone - AeroTime. AeroTime. https://www.aerotime.aero/articles/25669-air-force-one-possibly-involved-in-near-miss-incident-with-drone.
[8] Mukhlis, A.H. (2021). Penguatan Pengaturan Pesawat Udara Tanpa Awak (Drone) Melalui Undang-Undang. IBLAM Law Review, 1(2), 103–120.
[9] Rezaei, M., Arezoo, B., &Ziaei-Rad, S. (2024). Redesign an aircraft windshield to improve its mechanical resistance against simultaneous bird impacts. International Journal of Impact Engineering, 184, 104811.
[10] Directorate General of Civil Aviation. (2014). Civil Aviation Safety Regulation (CASR) Part 23, Amendment 2: Airworthiness Standards-Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category Airplanes. Ministry of Transportation, Republic of Indonesia.
[11] Mavic Pro - Product Information - DJI. DJI Official. https://www.dji.com/id/mavic/info.
[12] Harsch, J. & Eugster, S.R. (2020). Finite Element Analysis of Planar Nonlinear Classical Beam Theories
[13] Sarif, M.I., Ramli, M.F., & Mohd Saleh, S.J. (2023). Weight Reduction of C-Drone Body Structure. Progress in Aerospace and Aviation Technology.
[14] Hong, T., Ding, F., Chen, F., Zhang, H., Zeng, Q. & Wang, J. (2023). Mechanical properties of 6061 aluminum alloy under cyclic tensile loading. Crystals, 13(8), 1171.
[15] Ghavanini, N., Caporale, A.M., Astori, P., Airoldi, A. & Panichelli, P. (2023). Impact Response of Monolithic and Laminated Polycarbonate Panels: An Experimental and Numerical Investigation. Polymers, 15.
[16] Seif, A., Mahmoud, S.F. & Megahed, M. (2024). Enhancement of Impact, Shear and Wear Performance of Glass Fiber/Epoxy Composites by Inclusion of Polycarbonate Sheets. Fibers and Polymers, 25, 4421 - 4436.
[17] Wang, G., Guo, X., Chen, J., Han, P., Su, Q., Guo, M., Wang, B. & Song, H. (2023). Safety Performance and Failure Criteria of Lithium-Ion Batteries under Mechanical Abuse. Energies.
[18] Al-Shamary, A.K., Abed, A.R. & Karakuzu, R. (2023). A comparative study on ballistic impact behaviors of glass/epoxy composites. Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures, 31, 13341 - 13350.
[19] Anuse, V.S., Shankar, K., Velmurugan, R. & Ha, S.K. (2023). Compression-after-impact analysis of carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy hybrid composite laminate with different ply orientation sequences. Thin-Walled Structures, 185, 110608.
[20] Edo, G.I., Ndudi, W., Ali, A.B., Yousif, E., Zainulabdeen, K., Onyibe, P.N., Akpoghelie, P.O., Ekokotu, H.A., Isoje, E.F., Igbuku, U.A., Essaghah, A.E., Ahmed, D.S. & Umar, H. (2024). An updated review on the modifications, recycling, polymerization, and applications of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). Journal of Materials Science, 59, 20496 - 20539.
[21] Rasan, D. & Farhan, F.A. (2023). Effect of addition of polymerized polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and zirconia particles on impact strength, surface hardness, and roughness of heat cure PMMA: An in vitro study. Dental Hypotheses, 14, 36 - 38.
[22] Shao, J., Xie, H., Liu, N., Yang, Y. & Zheng, Z. (2023). An improved composite impact damage model and bird-striking damage analysis with smoothed particle hydrodynamics-finite element method. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 43, 939 - 958.
[23] Kwon, S.L., Kim, S., Kim, K. & Yun, G.J. (2023). Birdstrike Analysis of the Flap Driving Parts Considering Effects of Bird Geometry and SPH(Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics) Parameters. Journal of the Korean Society for Aeronautical & Space Sciences.
[24] Lu, X., Liu, X., Li, Y., Zhang, Y. & Zuo, H. (2020). Simulations of airborne collisions between drones and an aircraft windshield. Aerospace Science and Technology, 98, 105713.
[25] Pavlovi?, A. & Minak, G. (2023). FEM-SPH numerical simulation of impact loading on floating laminates. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(8), 1590.
[26] Federal Aviation Administration. (2020). 14 CFR Part 107 – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems. U.S. Department of Transportation.
[27] Warsiyanto, B.A., Sitompul, S.A., Yuniarti, E., Fitriansyah, R. & Utama, A.B. (2020). Bird strike analysis on 19 passenger aircraft windshield with different thickness and impact velocity. Jurnal Teknologi Kedirgantaraan, 5(2).
